The original patterns of settlement of the Philippine archipelago are of great importance to an understanding of the present situation, since the differences between the various peoples have by no means been eliminated. Their local particularisms are still sufficiently vigorous and their social structures sufficiently solid to survive in spite of the outside influences to which they have been exposed; and some of the minorities are also protected by their remoteness. The history of the Philippines can be divided into 4 distinct phases: Pre-Colonial Period (before 1521); Spanish Period (1521 - 1898); American Period (1898 - 1946); Post Independence Period (1946 up to present)

The Pre-Colonial Period
Prehistoric man is believed to have first settled in the Philippines 250,000 years ago, but on the basis of the most recent discoveries in the Palawan caves, the oldest human fossils remains are about to between 40,000 and 50,000 years ago. These remains suggest that the first human migrations to the islands took place during the last Ice Age, where the water barrier was much less. On a Paleolithic level of culture, the Negritos or Aetas are the first inhabitants. They are Australo-Melanesian people which stand between 1.10 and 1.20 m high with dark skin, crisp curly hair, thick lips and flat nose. They lived by food-gathering and hunting. They use bows and arrows, blowpipes and practice slash-and burn farming but appear to have no religious beliefs. Their descendants are still to be found in the Philippines, living in remote mountain areas in the Zambales; Ilocos; some part of Northern Luzon; Bicol; in most southerly islands; and in the Visayas (Negros and Panay). The theory that they arrived in the Philippines overland, when the archipelago was still connected with the mainland, is now discredited.

These first inhabitants were followed by successive waves of Proto-Malaysians, known as Indonesians. The first set of Indonesians arrived around 5000 B.C. while the second one arrived about 3500 B.C. The former were tall, slender and light-skinned, with angular features pointing to a Mongol origin; the latter were small and dark-skinned, with less marked features. The first group, who were of Paleolithic culture, was driven into the interior by the second group, who was of more advanced Neolithic culture and practised non-irrigated farming. The descendants of the second group of Indonesians are now known as Kalingas, Ifugaos, Bontocs, Gaddangs and Apoyaos on Luzon, Tagbanuas on Palawan and Bagobos, and Bilaans, Manobos and Tirurays on Mindanao. They live in remote regions into which they were driven by the numerically superior Malaysians who arrived during the 1st millennium B.C. and had the advantage of practising stock rearing and a more advanced agriculture and the use of metals.

There were further movements of Malaysians into the Philippines over a long period ranging from the beginning of the Christian era to the 13th century. While the earlier settlers probably came from the interior of Asia, these later arrivals are thought to have come from the coasts of the South-East Asian peninsula and particularly from Malaya.

None of the successive neighbouring empires seems to have exercised political supremacy over the Philippines. Relations with China were mainly commercial, and trade developed on a considerable scale under the Sung dynasty (960-1127); it probably began at an earlier stage, though there are no documents to prove it. There was a steady movement of Chinese into the Philippines for the purposes of trade.

The Malaysians also served as intermediaries between India and the Philippines, and were responsible for the few Indian religious and linguistic features still to be observed in the Philippines. The spread of Indian ideas was promoted by the two great Malaysian empires which extended their influence all over South-East Asia, Srivijaya (around 650 A.D.) and Modjapahit, which reached its peak about 1400 A.D.

Islamic influences reached the Philippines in the same way, as a result of exchanges within the Malaysian world, but there were also direct contacts through the intermediary of Arab traders. It is perhaps doubtful to what extent these merchants themselves disseminated Islam, but they were followed by a number of missionaries. By the last quarter of the 13th century, or perhaps a little earlier, Sulu had a foreign Muslim community; and the numbers of Muslims increased in the 15th century with the arrival of Malaysians from Sumatra, and particularly of Rajah Baguinda. The first Muslim missionary on Mindanao is believed to have arrived about the middle of the 15th century; and when the Spaniards came to the Philippines in 1521 there were Muslims on Luzon, particularly at Manila.

The Spanish Period
In 1493, before Magellan's expedition, Pope Alexander VI had sought to avoid conflicts between the two great sea powers of the day by assigning to Spain all the land lying west of an imaginary line from the Azores to the Cape Verde Islands, and to Portugal the land lying east of that line.

The Portuguese navigator Magellan, financed by the King of Spain, arrived in the Philippines on 17 March 1521, naming the islands "Islas de San Lazaro". His expedition was the result of the conjunction of a variety of factors. The expansion of Islam was making the overland trade routes unsafe, and it was therefore necessary to find alternative means of access to the spices which Europe required to give some taste to the insipid foods of the day and to help in preserving them; and Europe's advancing economic, financial, cultural and technological development now made such costly and adventurous expeditions possible. The Portuguese had chosen to follow the route down the African coast and round the Cape of Good Hope, while the Spaniards sailed across the Atlantic and through the strait which is now named after Magellan to reach the Pacific Ocean and the Philippines.

Of the five vessels of Magellan's expedition only the Victoria returned; Magellan himself was killed in an encounter with the natives on Cebu. The Victoria's 26 ton cargo of cloves sold for 41,000 ducats. This returned the 20,000 ducats the venture had cost plus a 105% profit.

After several fruitless expeditions in 1525, 1526, 1527 and 1529 Spain sold Portugal the Moluccas under the treaty of Saragossa. An expedition led by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos set out from Mexico City in 1542; he named the island "Las Islas Filipinas" in honour of the throne, Prince Felipe or Philip. However, he failed to secure a foothold in the Philippines. The archipelago was not formally organized as a Spanish colony until 1565 when Philip II appointed Miguel Lopez de Legazpi as the first Governor-General. He established the first Spanish post on Cebu in 1565; then, moving north, he defeated the Muslim Rajah Sulayman and in 1571 established a Spanish base at Manila, extending the area under Spanish control.

The Missions
Almost all the Spanish expeditions to the Philippines included monks or friars. The archbishopric of Manila was established in 1578, and the Philippines were divided up between various religious orders. The first arrivals, who were Augustinian canons, took the most populous areas Bulacan, Pampanga, Batangas, Panay, Cebu and Ilocos. Later Franciscans settled in southern Luzon, Jesuits mainly in the Visayas and on Mindanao, Dominicans in central Luzon and Recollects in the north. These orders, like the Episcopal dioceses, were granted encomiendas, the profits from which went towards their maintenance, the building of churches and convents, education, etc. In theory these encomiendas like those granted by way of reward to civilians and soldiers were intended to last for only two generations. Each missionary received in addition from the government 100 bushels of rice and 100 pesos annually in recognition of their contribution to the task of colonisation. The religious functions of the missionaries thus, gradually developed into a powerful temporal authority. The courage of the first missionaries in venturing into remote parts of the country often gave them a more influential position than the civil authorities; sometimes, indeed, they were the only representatives of Spanish authority. The work of conversion frequently went in parallel with the education of the people and the introduction of the Spanish language. The religious orders founded not only schools but universities; and the University of Santo Tomas (1611) was the first to be established in Asia. Thus, in the course of centuries the orders acquired vast possessions and became powerful landowners, masters of the land and the people within their territories.

Spanish Administration
The newly conquered territories were administered until 1821 by the Viceroy of New Spain (Mexico), who in turn was subject to the authority of the Council of the Indies (Consejo de Indias) in Madrid. The decrees and laws promulgated by the Council were brought together in the code known as the Recopilacion de las Leyes de los Reinos de las Indias. But Mexico was a long way away and Madrid was at the other end of the world, and the Governor had power to set aside the royal orders if he considered them inappropriate to the local situation. The Audiencia or Supreme Court, the constitutional organ of the Philippines, had no means of enforcing its decisions. The excessive autonomy and centralization of power, at the level of both the gobernador (governor) and the provincial authorities (the encomendero, later replaced by an alcalde mayor) sometimes gave rise to abuses. For in fact the encomendero was all-powerful, holding political, judicial, financial and military authority; and in addition the alcalde mayor enjoyed until 1844 a quasi-monopoly of trade. At the municipal level authority was exercised by the gobernadorcillo, who was relieved of all taxes and service obligations but had to meet administrative costs much higher than the value of these privileges. In effect he took over the functions of the datus of the pre-colonial period. The office was at first hereditary, but the gobernadorcillo later came to be elected by an electoral body composed of local notable or principalia, datus and headmen of barangays. Towns were administered by a town council (cabildo); the first such towns were Manila, Cebu, Nueva Segovia (Cagayan) and Nueva Caceres (Camarines).

Finance and Economy
The financial situation of the colony was a constant preoccupation. When the Spaniards arrived they had been disappointed by the scarcity not only of spices but also of gold; and the Manila government became involved in a whole series of expensive military operations, both defensive and offensive the conquest of the Moluccas, ambitions in the Indochinese peninsula, attacks by the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British, and numerous ill-coordinated expeditions against the Muslims in the south, to say nothing of risings in various parts of the country and the repression of the Chinese, who were expelled in 1755, thus disorganizing all the trading activities which had been in their hands. Although the number of Spaniards was always quite small the local income from taxes and tributes was insufficient to meet all this expenditure. The tribute paid by the Filipinos amounted to 8 reals (later increased to 10 and then 12), plus another 6 reals from the tax on the clergy, the common good fund, tithes and two additional taxes by way of contributions towards the cost of defence against Muslim raids on the coasts. In 1884 these various payments were combined in a single income tax (cedula). In addition the Filipinos were required to contribute 40 days labour (polo) on public works, road construction and shipbuilding, and two weeks work for their local community. This practice ran completely counter to successive royal edicts which had laid down that any work for the Spaniards must be paid for at a fair rate.

In order to bolster up the finances of the Philippines, therefore, the government in Mexico sent a subsidy, the real situado, in the galleon which sailed twice a year from Acapulco. This galleon also enjoyed a monopoly of trade with the Philippines, which remain closed to foreigners until the opening of the port of Manila in 1834; but this trade was not to exceed a value of 250,000 pesos (increased to 300,000 in 1702 and to 500,000 in 1734) or a cargo of 300 tons. These limitations were dictated by Spanish apprehension that Chinese products (particularly textiles and silk) would compete with European and that too much money (mainly coming from Mexico) would go to China, which supplied almost the whole of the cargo dispatched to Mexico and from there to Europe. This restricted level of trade did little to encourage the industry and commerce of the archipelago, merely enriching a small number of Spaniards and Chinese shopkeepers. The state monopoly of tobacco, a large-scale enterprise, began to yield substantial profits towards the end of the 18th century, as a result of the stimulus given by the establishment of the Real Compañia de Filipinas in 1785. This company had the sole right of carrying Asiatic commodities, which were exempted from all duties in the Philippines while in transit to Spain; and it put an end to the activities of the galleon which had sailed between Mexico and the Philippines for more than two centuries.

The Real Compañia also developed agriculture and industry. Considerable sums were invested with the object of increasing industrial production, but the Spaniards were unable to develop either the growing of traditional Filipino crops or (with some exceptions) the new crops which they brought to the Philippines, like tomatoes, maize, cassava, cocoa, papaws, groundnuts, guavas, indigo, maguey, sugar-cane and pineapples, nor the rearing of the animals which they had brought from Spain (cattle, horses, pigeons, ducks, etc.). Certain local industries also tended to disappear.

Developments under Spanish Rule
The great problem of the Spanish administration was the instability of its policy. The Governors were appointed in accordance with the political exigencies of the day in mainland Spain; their average tenure of office was less than 3 years, and the rate of turnover increased towards the end of the period. The turn of events in the Spanish colony was thus usually dictated by happenings in Europe. The 377 years of Spanish rule were fairly eventful years, and the Spaniards were several times on the point of abandoning or losing their colony. The complete conquest of the colony was relatively easy process as well as the establishment of Spanish power.

In 1635, the Spaniards built a fort at Zamboanga on the island of Mindanao and thus established their position in Muslim territory. During this time, the Muslims had already established themselves in the southern part of the archipelago. The less centralized sultanate of Maguindanao and the very powerful sultanate of Borneo were overshadowed by the sultanate of Sulu, over which the Spaniards never achieved complete control; and even the destruction of the town of Jolo by the Spaniards in 1876 did not eliminate the sultan, though it put an end to his supremacy.

Jolo was a great centre of trade which attracted both Chinese junks and Malaysian vessels from Celebes and Java. The Chinese brought metal articles and took away in return mainly foodstuffs (sharks fins, pearls, sea cucumbers). The Muslims obtained supplies by piratical raids on the coastal regions which were now in Spanish hands, and these activities were facilitated by the Spanish practice of establishing settlements round ill defended mission stations. The slaves captured in this way might be sold in markets as far afield as Jakarta (Batavia). Spanish attempts to conquer Muslim territory were bound, therefore, to encounter fierce resistance, since the Muslims could not contemplate the loss of their trade and their slaves, still less of their religion for the Spaniards required the peoples of conquered territory to abandon Islam for Christianity.

A few years later the threat of attack by the Chinese pirate Coxeng obliged them to concentrate their limited forces in Manila, and they did not re-establish themselves at Zamboanga until 1718. In the intervening period they had had to cope with attacks by the Dutch and numerous risings in various parts of the Philippines. Thereafter, Spain was increasingly weakened by the dismemberment of the Habsburg Empire, followed by a series of European conflicts the War of the Spanish Succession, the Seven Years War, etc. The decline of Spain distracted its attention from the Philippines until 1821, when Mexico achieved independence, and culminated in the loss of the Philippines in 1898. As a consequence of the wars in Europe British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764, and this indication that Spain could be defeated encouraged resistance within the country. Only then did the Spanish authorities put through reforms designed to secure more centralized government and strengthen their control of the country. Finally the 1860s saw the beginnings of the nationalist phase in the history of the Philippines.

Nationalist Movement
The Filipinos had in fact made many attempts to throw off the Spanish yoke in an effort to regain control over their own destiny (1574, 1587-88) or in the context of religious conflicts (1601, 1621-22, 1625, 1627, and 1663, 1744-1829). In view of the chronic shortage of secular clergy the missionaries had been authorized by the Council of Trent to act as parish priests; but under the rules of their orders their vows led them to refuse obedience to the local bishop. The dispute was still further embittered when the Spanish religious authorities refused to accept priests ordained in the Philippines as parish priests in place of the missionaries; In 1849, From a desire to return to the old faiths, hostility to the abuses of the Catholic church and the exclusion of Filipinos from religious orders and priesthood led to a revolt headed by Apolinario de la Cruz. After the many bloody battles, the Spanish put down the revolt and executed Apolinario de la Cruz. In 1849, when the Jesuits (who had been expelled in 1768) returned to the Philippines, some Filipino priests were actually driven out of their parishes. There were also risings against administrative oppression, taxes, service obligations and the government's monopoly of trade (1596, 1649-50, 1660-61, 1762-64, 1807), and against the expropriation of land in favour of the church. The army mutiny at Cavite (1872) was followed by numerous arrests, deportations and executions. The military court condemend the three reformists Fathers Jose Burgos, Mariano Gomez and Jacinto Zamora to death. At this level opposition to the church became rebellion against the state, since both represented constituted authority. But these various revolts, violence and insurrection were invariably failed through their inability to extend beyond more than one or two provinces.

By the third quarter of the 19th century, however, the situation had moved into a new phase. In spite of numerous obstacles the middle class had now developed, and their children were being sent to Spain to study; and the opening of the Suez Canal had improved communications with Europe and the ideas of freedom and revolution which were circulating there. This first wave of rising nationalism was fostered by young intellectuals in Madrid who supported the Filipino cause and sought to obtain reforms in their country. The leading propagandists of this period were Graciano Lopez Jaena, Marcelo H. del Pilar and Jose Rizal, a writer of unquestionable talent now a national hero and symbol of freedom. One of their aspirations was to secure Filipino representation in the Cortes, the Spanish Parliament, but this was never achieved. The Philippines were represented in the Cortes only during three short periods (1810-13, 1820-23, 1834-37), and then only by Spaniards. It was during 1868, when a liberal revolution in Spain ousts Queen Isabella and gave rise to the short lived First Republic. Carlos Maria de la Torre was appointed as a Governor-General of the Philippines in 1869. During his term he abolished censorship and extended the right of speech and assembly contained in the Spanish constitution of 1869. He led the country in a real spirit of liberalism; however, his term did not last for a long time. In 1871, he was replaced by Rafael de Izquierdo.

The Revolution
The obvious failure of all efforts to secure reform then led Andres Bonifacio, a self-taught man without formal education, to found a secret society, the Katipunan, in 1892. An organization influenced by the freemasons, at the national, provincial and municipal level. Emilio Jacinto, known as the brains of the Katipunan, wrote a propaganda material directed at the widest public. The objects of the society were civic and moral as well as political. They published a journal, Kalayaan (Freedom), but only one issue was able to appear. The movement spread rapidly, but made no appeal to the middle classes who might have financed the military equipment it needed. Rizal was arrested on the point of leaving to Cuba and ordered to return to Fort Santiago in Manila to stand trial for rebellion and treason. He was found guilty and shot by a firing squad on December 30, 1896. His execution gave the rebellion fresh determination and gave inspiration to the final revolt against Spain. The activities of the Katipunan were discovered by the Spanish authorities in 1896, and its leaders fled, calling on the country to rise. They soon gained control of several provinces; but the movement then split into two factions and after two encounters with the rival separatists led by Emilio Aguinaldo; Bonifacio was sentenced to death and executed by Aguinaldo's forces in 1897.

It was 1 November 1897 when the first Philippine Republic and its constitution were declared with Aguinaldo as President. The Pact of Biak-na-Bato was signed by both parties under the agreement a general amnesty will be extended to the rebels and a payment of US$800,000 for Aguinaldo and his government to retire and voluntary exile in Hong Kong.

On 25 April 1898 the United States declared war on Spain, few days later Commodore George Dewey sank the Spanish fleet at anchor in Manila. Meanwhile the Filipinos had taken up arms again and concerted with the Americans. They were encircling the Spanish forces which had sought refuge in Intramuros. On 13 August the Spaniards surrendered. Aguinaldo, who had returned to the Philippines with a supply of arms, now hoped that the Americans would support his new Republic. Assisted by the advice of a lawyer named Apolinario Mabini, he had established the dictatorship of Malolos in May, and in the following month this became the revolutionary government. Aguinaldo then summoned a parliament to discuss and approve a constitution; and the independence of the Philippines was declared on 12 June 1898 and the new constitution introduced on 21 January 1899. The prime objective of this haste was to prove to international opinion that the new nation was able to govern itself and to secure recognition by foreign powers.

On 10 December 1898, however, the United States and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, under which the Philippines were ceded to the United States together with Guam and Puerto Rico for the amount of US$20 million. It was 6 February 1899, when the treaty was ratified by the U.S. Senate and the Filipinos had not even been consulted. The destruction of Filipino hopes that the Americans would support their allies in their struggle to achieve independence led to tension between the two countries which soon exploded into conflict. The Filipinos put up fierce resistance all over the country, and the Americans had to conquer it again, region by region. Aguinaldo was captured in March 1901, in spite of the efforts of his courageous generals Antonio Luna, Gregorio del Pilar and Miguel Malvar. Macario Sakay, however, continued the struggle until 1906, and was finally induced to surrender only by an American promise to establish a National Assembly when peace was restored.

The American Period

Preparation for Self-Government
The United States had declared their intention of remaining in the Philippines only until the Filipinos were ready for self-government; they were in any event by no means sure that they wanted to hold on to their new colony. Executive and legislative powers were in the hands of a civilian Governor, who was also chairman of the Philippine Commission. The Schurmann Commision (1899) recognized the determination of the Filipino to gain their independence and recommended the establishment of the institutions for civilian domestic government as soon as possible. While the Taft Commission (1900) gave the legislative and executive authority to put in a place the civilian government recommended the by the first commission. The Philippine Act of 1902 established a wholly civilian government which took over from the first military government. Previously, in 1899, a Supreme Court with a majority of Filipino judges had been set up; and administrative authority at both the provincial and municipal levels was entirely in the hands of Filipinos. Nevertheless, the United States were in complete control until the establishment of the Legislative Assembly which was elected in July 1907. The Nacionalista Party of Manuel Quezon and Sergio Osmeña won the election.

Finally self-government was introduced by the Jones Act or Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916, which provided for the independence of the Philippines to be recognized as soon as a stable government was established. Filipinos now shared in the government of the country, holding all the ministerial portfolios except education. The Jones Act also provided for the election of a second chamber, the Senate, which replaced the Philippine Commission, so that the Filipinos now had a complete political and administrative system operating under American supervision. The filipinisation of the public service was a slow process in the early stages but had taken on a faster tempo in 1912. Finally, the Filipinos secured the right to send two representatives to the United States Congress. Although Governor Harrison (1913-21) encouraged the legislative proposals of the Filipinos his successor Leonard Wood (1921-27) made much use of his right of veto. Following a minor incident in 1923, all the Filipino members of the Cabinet resigned in protest.

In 1926 a Supreme National Council was established to deal with all matters relating to the campaign for independence. Concern had been felt over an American bill (which was not in fact passed) providing Mindanao and Sulu to have a special status: the Muslims were apprehensive about centralized government from Manila, and it was remembered that immediately after their arrival, in 1899, the Americans had signed a separate treaty, the Bates Agreement, with the Sultan of Sulu.

The American policy of non-intervention in the affairs of the Moros was maintained until the pacification of the rest of the country; but thereafter, in contrast to the long continued vacillations of the Spaniards, the Americans swiftly asserted their authority in virtue of their military superiority. They abolished slavery, but made no attempt to displace the Islamic faith. Their modern weapons enabled them to wreak havoc on the opposing Moro forces, and the battles of Bud Daho (1906) and Bud Bagsak (1913), both on the island of Jolo, caused enormous carnage. After the second battle, the fighting was, for all practical purposes, at an end. Thereafter, the southern Philippines were at first governed independently as a Moro province, and later directly administered by a Ministry for Mindanao and Sulu. The American authorities enforced the payment of taxes and built schools, hospitals and roads.

Philippine Commonwealth
Although the principle of a commonwealth, an interim period on the way towards independence during which the Americans would remain as observers, had been accepted, the necessary legislation was not passed by the U.S. Congress until 1933. This was the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act (1933), which was replaced in 1934 by the Tydings-McDuffie Act, slightly amended in the light of representations by Quezon about the disastrous economic consequences of the original Act. Previous American policy on independence had been affected by pressures from the Republican Party, which was opposed to it; and measures favouring independence put forward by the Democratic President Woodrow Wilson (1913-19) had been thrown out by the Republican majority in Congress.

The Commonwealth was to last for ten years, a period too short to permit the reorganization of the economy. The prime considerations had been political rather than economic, although by this time the Philippines were in a position of close economic dependence on the United States. Nevertheless, by March 1935 the new constitution had been drafted, passed and approved by President Roosevelt; and on 14 May the Filipinos voted by plebiscite to accept it. Quezon and Osmeña were now elected as President and Vice-President of the Philippine Commonwealth, respectively.

The passage of the legislation establishing the Commonwealth was made possible by purely economic considerations. In the prevailing economic depression American farmers blamed the low prices they received on competition from Philippine produce; and industrialists complained about the free admission of Philippine products to the American market and their failure to obtain a customs barrier against such imports. The economic crisis of 1929 had promoted the growth of American protectionism and moves for the raising of all customs tariffs.

Originally the American administration had had no particular commercial conditions in mind, since under the Treaty of Paris of 1898 Spanish imports were to have the same rights. The Tariff Act of 1909 was the first change in tariff laws since the Dingley Act of 1897; the act provided the entry of American products into the Philippines entirely free of duty; and similarly Philippine sugar and tobacco were to be admitted to the United States without payment of duty within certain quota, limitations were abolished in 1913. As a result American products, which accounted for 7% of Philippine imports in 1899, rose to 65.5% by 1934, and over the same period Philippine exports to the United States increased from 26% to 84% of total exports.

The availability of American products had discouraged the industrialization of the Philippines and destroyed certain noncompetitive local industries; the American market was now being closed to the Philippines by the erection of tariff barriers, regardless of the fact that none of the neighbouring countries could offer alternative outlets for Philippine products. The significance of these developments did not escape the Filipino peasants, who rose in revolt against the Commonwealth (the Sakdals). Moreover the country's difficulties were aggravated by the fact that almost the whole of the retail trade had over the years been monopolized by the Chinese (about 75% of the total) and Japanese, leaving practically none of it in the hands of Filipinos.

The Second World War
The new government of the Commonwealth, realizing their military unpreparedness, called in Gen. Douglas MacArthur to organize the country's defence. It was clear that the Filipino army would be unable to contain an attack by the Japanese after its expansion into Manchuria, China and Indochina; and accordingly a joint American-Filipino force, USAFFE, was established in 1951. On 7 December in that year the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, abruptly brought the American in the declaration of war, 10 hours after, the bombing in the Philippines began, particularly the in the American base at Clark Field. This was followed by Japanese landings at various points in the archipelago, and on 2 January 1942 Manila was occupied.

Quezon and his government sought refuge in the fortress of Corregidor, and then withdrew to the United States, while Jose P. Laurel remained to confront the enemy. The USAFFE retreated to Bataan and then to Corregidor, but in spite of its heroic resistance was crushed by Japanese forces within a few months. The Japanese led their captives on an inhumane and criminal Death March on which around 7,000 to 10,000 died or were murdered before arriving at the internment camps. The Japanese set up a government on similar lines to the Commonwealth, promising to grant the Filipinos independence; and this was in fact granted in October 1943. Nevertheless the Japanese occupation was rigidly repressive, with the object of obviating all resistance. The disintegration of the economy and shortage of food created particular hardship in Manila; but guerrilla warfare continued in Luzon (in both the north and the south) and in the Visayas.

After regaining control of the Pacific the Americans were able, following the three naval battles of Leyte (Surigao Strait, Cape Engaflo and Samar), to recapture Manila on 30 January 1945; and shortly before the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Gen. MacArthur proclaimed the liberation of the Philippines and handed over the power to Osmeña, who had succeeded to the Presidency following Quezon's death in the United States.

The Post Independence Period

Republic of the Philippines (1946-1965)
In the 1946 presidential election a younger man, Manuel Roxas, defeated Osmeña. He then declared an amnesty for collaborators; and on 4 July 1946 the independence of the Philippines was proclaimed. Roxas died of heart attack in April 1948 and was succeeded by the Vice-President, Elpidio Quirino.

The American Legacy
The American presence, indirect though it might be, was still very evident after independence, extending to every aspect of the country's life. It was felt in the political and institutional field, since the constitution was based on the United States model. The economy was dominated by trade with America and by American investment. A profound cultural transformation was brought about by the provision of free primary education, extending to the remotest villages, the development began by the dispatch of 600 American teachers to the Philippines in 1901; and traditional ethics were affected by the adoption of Western attitudes and Western materialism. Finally the Americans greatly improved public health and hygiene and developed many social services.

At the end of the war the country's economy was completely disorganized and the currency had depreciated to an intolerable extent. Accordingly in July 1949, under the Bell Act, the United States offered new arrangements for trade: for a period of eight years Philippine goods were to be allowed to enter the United States duty-free, after which duties were to be increased at the rate of 5% a year until they reached 100%. In exchange, however, the Americans will have full power to utilize, develop and use all agricultural land and timber, to run the public services and to develop the water, coal, oil and mineral resources of the Philippines. This ran counter to the provision in the constitution that 60% of the capital of such enterprises should be held by Filipinos, and it was therefore necessary to put through an amendment to the constitution. This was approved by plebiscite in 1967, in spite of the opposition of Claro M. Recto and Jose P. Laurel, who maintained that the nation's patrimony should be conserved and developed by the Filipinos themselves. The Philippines, thus gave more than they received, even allowing for the 600 million dollars from the United States for war damage and another 100 million for reconstruction.

In 1946 the Rehabilitation Finance Corporation (which later became the Development Bank of the Philippines) was established to provide credit facilities for construction work; and the Central Bank sought to establish the country's economic sovereignty and to stabilise the peso.

In 1954 the inequitable provisions of the Bell Trade Act were amended by the Laurel-Langley agreement, which accelerated the rate of increase of import duties on American goods entering the Philippines and slowed down the increase of American duties on goods from the Philippines. Both types of duty (with the exception of the duty on sugar) were to reach 100% by 1974, by which time Filipinos were also to hold at least 60% of company capital.

The military of the Philippines were still heavily dependent on the United States. In 1947 the two countries signed a pact providing for assistance in terms of equipment and personnel; and in addition the Americans retained their military bases in the Philippines on a 99-year lease (reduced in 1959 to 25 years, with provision for renewal). In 1976 the Filipinos resumed their theoretical sovereignty over these bases (particularly Clark Field and Subic) and required the United States to pay rent for them.

Social Conditions
The predominant problem in the immediate post-war period was the question of land reform. Although this was not of direct interest to the country's politicians it was forced on their attention by the growing unrest among peasants of the Luzon plains. This peasant's discontent was a consequence partly of conditions inherited from the Spanish period, and partly of the Japanese occupation.

The share-cropping system which had developed under Spanish rule was based on an equal division of produce between the farmer and the landowner, with no allowance for the fact that the farmer contributed his labour and equipment (implements, seed, and draught animals). The high taxes which the peasants had to pay in addition left them no margin for survival, and they therefore laboured under a constant burden of debt which left them bound for life to the landowners and the moneylenders from whom they were compelled to borrow.

After the departure of the Spaniards the land which had previously been held by Spanish owners, and particularly by the church, was taken over by well-to-do Filipinos; and the efforts of the Americans were inadequate to remedy the situation. Unions of discontented workers and peasants were formed under socialist aegis, and in 1930 the Philippine Communist Party was founded, to be banned two years later. The war with the Japanese led the peasants of Tarlac, Pampanga and Nueva Ecija provinces to form the Hukbalahap resistance army, which became known as the Huk movement; and their control of these provinces by this quasi-military organization was perforce recognized by the Japanese. Their reputation as communists, however, led the Americans and the new government to set about disarming and arresting the members of the organization, including its leader Luis Taruc. The leaders of the Congress of Labor Organizations were treated in the same way. In spite of this there were in 1967 some 2000 trade unions with 700,000 members in all fields of economic life.

In 1947 President Roxas unseated and outlawed six Huks who had been elected to Congress; but in April of the following year President Quirino granted an amnesty in an attempt to achieve peace. The Huks refused, however, to lay down their arms, and there was a resumption of violence, including the assassination of Seora Quezon, wife of the country's first President.

Ramon Magsaysay run for the Presidency in 1953 and took two-thirds of vote to defeat Quirino. Magsaysay, a man of modest origins, was moved by genuine concern for the condition of the peasants. He went in person to see the villages, and established a number of bodies to promote development in rural areas, credit facilities, cooperative associations, housing, road building and the sinking of wells. He also put through a land reform act which allowed peasants to choose the terms of their leases, redistributed publicly held land to farmers, set up a committee to deal with complaints and remedy abuses, and established a social security scheme. Unfortunately, owing to shortage of funds and lack of planning the results fell short of expectations. It was May 1954 when Taruc surrendered to the government, signaling the decline of Huk threat.

After Magsaysay's death in an air crash in 1957, he was succeeded by the Vice-President, Carlos P. Garcia, who secured re-election later in the same year, with Diosdado Macapagal as Vice President. He continued his predecessor's policy of social justice in an austerity programmed aimed at restoring the country's economic autonomy, developing both industry and agriculture and fighting the corruption which had become widespread in the post-war period.

This new trend of policy coincided with a revival of nationalism in reaction against the omnipresent American benefactor, which led to a certain tension between the two partners.

International Relations
Anxious to establish their place among the nations of the world, the Philippines joined the United Nations when the organization was established in 1945. In 1947 they signed a treaty of friendship with France, and from 1951 onwards they strengthened their relations with neighbouring countries by treaties of friendship and summit conferences. The most significant agreement, reflecting a common consciousness of belonging to South-East Asia, was the Treaty of Manila in 1954 which established SEATO (the South-East Asia Treaty Organization). The treaty, designed to combat the rising tide of communism in Asia, provided for mutual defence against any aggression in South-East Asia. The signatories were the Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan, the United States, New Zealand, Australia and France; but the three key states India, Indonesia and Burma refused to join.

An agreement reached at Manila in 1963 between the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia was soon brought into jeopardy by the assignment of Sarawak and Borneo (Sabah) to Malaysia after a plebiscite in these areas, in spite of the claims of the two neighbouring nations. Nevertheless, after the re-establishment of diplomatic relations with Malaysia and the inauguration of Ferdinand Marcos as President in 1966 it became possible to establish a non-political agency for cultural development, social progress, economic growth and administrative cooperation under a treaty signed at Bangkok on 8 August 1967. This was ASEAN, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations by which the five original member countries are Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore and the Philippines. In pursuit of a wider policy of friendly relations with other countries President Marcos also developed contacts with the Soviet Union, China, Japan, the developing countries and the Middle East.

Martial Law
Marcos initiated an ambitious spending program on public works; building roads, bridges, health centres, schools and urban beautification projects. He maintained his popularity through his fist term, and in 1969 he won a second term in office. However, his popularity declined precipitously in the second term. The peso, which was then being allowed to float, had reached a level of inflation which put an intolerable burden on the country's economy. Moreover, President Marcos's term of office was nearing its end, and under the 1935 constitution he was ineligible for re-election. The country, thus found itself in a difficult pre-electoral situation. The election itself, fought with passionate vigour, led to a mobilization of political feeling and a degree of public agitation which fostered internal intrigues and party rivalries. Social unrest was at a peak, with strikes and demonstrations directed by Jose Sison's communist party, at a time when the tide of communism was rising in Southeast Asia. The armed forces, the NPA (New People s Army), gave their support to these activities, aggravating the climate of riot and rebellion. The Muslims of the south took advantage of these crises and the disarray of the central government to mount an armed rising which brought the area into a virtual state of war. Their object was to obtain the full rights of citizenship; Economic, cultural, political and religious which they had been denied since the beginning of the colonial period. The students too gave vigorous expression to their political and social discontents, with such effect that their demonstrations became known as the parliaments in the street.

In an attempt to end the state of violence, insecurity and general chaos which was devastating the country, President Marcos introduced martial law on 21 September 1972, and thereafter exercised direct government authority by presidential decrees. In spite of this an executive committee which had been appointed in 1971 produced a new constitution which was ratified by a national referendum on 15 June 1973. The new constitution is simple, establishing a parliamentary regime in place of the presidential system and providing for a single chamber, the Batasang Pambansa, elected for a six-year term. The President and Prime Minister are to be elected by and from the National Assembly; and the President has power to dissolve the Assembly and declare a new election.

In face of the need to restore public order, however, the democratic system of which the Filipinos were so proud was now in process of being destroyed. The opposition was disrupted by numerous arrests, including some of opposition politicians, journalists, critics, and activists; Benigno Aquino was among the first 30,000 who were detained under martial law. The civil service was purged to restore efficiency and honesty, the press was muzzled, a curfew was imposed between midnight and 4 a.m. With the absolute authority, the government was able to put the land reform into effect. Land was taken from those owning more than 7 hectares and redistributed on the basis of 3 hectares of irrigated land or 5 hectares of non-irrigated land for each farmer. At the same time the tax system was reformed so as to produce increased revenue for developing the national infrastructure (roads, schools, irrigation, etc.) and creating employment. In order to promote coordination between these various projects and the government, numerous specialized agencies were set up to provide advice and supervision in the social and public health as well as the economic fields. These agencies had branches in all the provinces, involving the participation of the provincial governors, who were appointed by the President.

In pursuit of this policy Victor Corpus and Dante, leaders of the Philippine Communist Party (PKP), which is of Maoist allegiance, were arrested in 1976, and Jose Sison was likewise arrested in 1979. Since then government forces have been involved only in occasional clashes with NPA guerrillas in isolated parts of the country. The MNLF (Moro National Liberation Front), however, remains active in spite of the government's attempts since 1975 to negotiate an amnesty. In April 1977 4 million people voted in a referendum in the 13 southern provinces of the Philippines and rejected any idea of autonomy (though the result must be interpreted in the light of the fact that the MNLF urged voters to boycott the referendum). Thus the problem remains unresolved, a problem to which no one, since the 16th century, has been able to find a solution.

During the period of martial law the GNP rose from Php55 billion in 1972 to Php193 billion in 1980. The rise of tourism industry during this period contributed a lot to the economy's growth; however, the administrators were willfully engaged in rampant corruption.

In order to appease the Roman Catholic Church President Marcos officially lifted the martial law on 17 January 1981 before the visit of Pope John Paul II. On the 16 June 1981 a presidential election was held which was boycotted by the political oppositions thus, President Marcos won and allowed him to have another six-year term.

EDSA Revolution
The assanination of opposition leader Benigno Aquino, Jr in 1983 brought together the different elements of the opposition in a common cause to reclaim their political freedom and dignity. At the same time, it precipitated a loss of confidence in the business community. By October of that same year, the Central Bank of the Philippines was forced to notify its creditors that it could not meet its obligation on its debt of US$24.6 billion. The country was bankrupt and the peso suffered a 21% devaluation.

On December 1985, President Marcos called for a snap election. With the support of the united opposition and the Catholic Church, Corazon Aquino, widow of the late Benigno Aquino, declared her candidacy. President Marcos won the official tally; however the result was denounced by the public and the U.S. delegation. On the 22 February 1986, the Secretary of Defense, Juan Ponce Enrile and General Fidel Ramos sent an appeal to the military to join them in revolt and calling the president to resign on his post. At the same day, Agapito Aquino, brother of the Benigno Aquino and Cardinal Sin asked the people to protect the rebels. Through the night, a million of people came out and by morning, EDSA and the access to the two military camps along EDSA was thoroughly jammed. By Sunday morning a column of tanks rolled along EDSA to dislodge the rebels. However, the tanks were stopped by the large number of unarmed civilians protecting the rebels. The soldiers have to kill them to get to the rebels whom in fact they do not expected nor prepared to do so.

It was 24 February when the American Ambassador delivered the message from President Reagan, informing President Marcos that he and his family together with his cronies would be welcome to live in United States. By the morning of 25 February, President Marcos was forced to exile and Corazon Aquino was installed as the new president of the Philippines.

Return to Democracy
President Corazon Aquino showed enthusiasm and tremendous expectation for the future. She formed a revolutionary government to normalize the situation. Under her presidency, democratic institutions and civil liberties were revitalized.

On February 1987, a new constitution was ratified by referendum. The new constitution replaced the National Assembly with a bicameral legislature and limited the president to a single term (6 years) in office. Despite of all efforts, administration was vied by many as weak and fractious and a return to full political stability and economic development was held back by several coups and by series of natural disasters, including the Mt. Pinatubo's eruption in 1991.

A peaceful election in May 1992 was held and Fidel V. Ramos won the presidency with just 23% of the vote in a field of seven candidates. During his term, he declared "National Reconciliation". He legalized the Communist Party and laid groundwork for talks with the communist insurgent, Muslim separatists and military rebels. He also worked to establish economic stability. Introduced economic and financial reforms needed for a competitive industrial economy. He encouraged private enterprise, invited more foreign and domestic investment and reduced corruption. President Ramos vision of "Philippines 2000" led the country into a newly industrialized country in the world.

In 1998 election, Joseph Estrada was elected as a president of the Philippines by an overwhelming mass support. Under the cloud of Asian financial crisis (began in 1997) his governance took a heavy tool on the economy, budget deficit grew, high unemployment rate, and currency plunged. The economy eventually recovered but on a very slow pace. The Estrada presidency was soon dogged by allegations of cronyism and corruption as well as the failure to remedy the problems of poverty.

President Estrada was impeached by the House of Representatives, but his impeachment trial in the Senate broke down when the senate voted to block the examination of president's bank records. A political turmoil arises and clamors for Estrada's resignation become stronger. Countenance with the street protests, cabinet resignations and the loss of political support eventually forced him from the office.

On 20 January 2001, the Supreme Court declared that the seat of presidency was vacant. At noon, Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo assumed the presidency.

President Arroyo outlines her vision for the country as "building a strong republic" throughout her tenure. Her agenda consist of building up a strong bureaucracy, lowering crime rates, increasing tax collection, improving economic growth and intensifying counter-terrorism efforts.

In December 2002, President Arroyo announced her desire to seek for a new term on the coming May 2004 election. On 30 June 2004, she took her oath of office in Cebu City.

Impeachment charges were brought against President Arroyo for allegedly tampering with the results of election after purported tapes of her speaking with an electoral official during the vote count. However, the Congress rejected the charges in September 2005. Similar charges were discussed and dismissed by the Congress on the following year.

Economic growth in terms of gross domestic product has averaged 4.6% during the Arroyo presidency from 2001 to 2005. This is higher than the previous recent presidents. Her administration also forged a strong relationship with the United States, East Asian and Southeast Asian nations. On 21 August 2007, President Arroyo pleads to the Senate to ratify a US$4 billion trade with Japan, which would create more that 300,000 jobs. An Amnesty proclamation was signed for members of the Communist party of the Philippines and its armed wing, the New People's Army, and other communist rebel group. Granted pardon to former President Estrada on 25 October 2007. Despite of all efforts made, criticism and public perception to the Arroyo's administration haven't change. The involvement on series of scandals and the allegations of corruptions of the Arroyo Administration led to public condemnation. The unfolding political crisis persists.